Language is ever-evolving, as exemplified by the latest updates to the Oxford English Dictionary. Additions like “blousette,” “gatekeep,” and “pumpkin spice” may seem inappropriate to traditionalists but are quaint in comparison to the words and phrases of Old English, the earliest form of the English language.  

The history of the English language is punctuated by violent conquests, blending cultures, and intellectual enlightenment. It’s a fascinating story, one without a clear beginning or end. We do, however, have to start somewhere. Here’s how the English language evolved throughout history, starting with its first main period: Old English.   

Old English  

The origins of the English language can be traced back to the fifth and sixth centuries, when the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles—known collectively as the Anglo-Saxons—migrated to England from what is now northwest Germany. Each tribe spoke a distinct dialect similar enough for members of different tribes to understand each other. The four dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons are: 

  • Kentish 
  • Mercian 
  • Northumbrian 
  • West Saxon 

English continued to evolve as other languages and cultures were introduced to the Anglo-Saxons. St. Augustine arrived at the end of the sixth century, leading to the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity and the influence of writing and Latin on their language. Vikings speaking Old Norse invaded in the eighth century, but Old English and Old Norse were similar enough for speakers to understand each other. Still, these languages would be unrecognizable to modern-day English speakers.  

Old vs. New: An Example of How the English Language Evolved 

How foreign can Old English really be? Take a look at the opening lines and translation of the epic poem “Beowulf,” which was composed by an unknown author sometime between the 7th and 11th centuries: 

Hwæt. We Gardena in geardagum, 
þeodcyninga, þrym gefrunon, 
hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon. 
Oft Scyld Scefing sceaþena þreatum, 
monegum mægþum, meodosetla ofteah, 
egsode eorlas. 

The argument can be made that English got its start in the ninth century when England became a unified kingdom under King Alfred the Great. At the time, Viking raids were seen as a form of divine punishment for sins stemming from ignorance, so Alfred, along with a group of scholars, translated Latin books into West Saxon and distributed them to his people. West Saxon became standard Old English: the first standard language of England.  

Middle English 

William the Conqueror, leading an army of French-speaking Normans, invaded England in 1066 and defeated King Harold Godwinson to become king. As a result of the Norman Conquest, three languages gained dominance: Anglo-Norman French (spoken by the elite), English (spoken by the general populace), and Latin.   

Latin was the language of learning throughout Western Europe and became the standard language in England after the Conquest. When Latin wasn’t appropriate, French was spoken. This period is known as the Interregnum (“between reigns”) and lasted from about 1250 to 1400. English ceased to be a written language, and the establishment of a standard English was, for a time, abandoned.  

The Great Vowel Shift 

Taking place sometime between the 14th and 17th centuries, the Great Vowel Shift was a phenomenon that changed the pronunciation of English vowels, specifically “long” vowels. For example, the /a:/ became /e:/ so that the “a” in “name” was no longer pronounced like the “a” in “father.” If you come across a word that’s pronounced nothing like it’s spelled, thank the Great Vowel Shift.  

Modern English 

As French and Latin waned in popularity, there was a push in the 16th century to make English England’s national language. Writers and scholars set to work establishing a written standard, one founded not on West Saxon but on the varieties of English spoken throughout London.  

All attempts to codify English failed until Samuel Johnson published “A Dictionary of the English Language” in 1775. Other dictionaries came before, but none contained such elegant definitions or detailed quotations, and its principles would influence later dictionaries for the next century. Johnson saw fit to define only the general vocabulary of his time, a view his successors did not share.  

At the behest of the Philological Society of London, the Oxford University Press and James Murray began work on a “complete” dictionary in 1879. Murray and his editors may have bitten off more than they could chew, however; it took them five years to reach the word “ant.” Completed in 1928, the first copy of “A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles” spanned 12 volumes, defined 414,825 words, and contained 1,827,306 citations. A revised and second edition were published in 1933 and 1989, respectively. We now know this reference work as the Oxford English Dictionary.  

Share Your Love of English 

Countless plays, poems, and novels have been written in English since the time of “Beowulf.” With every new work published, the language evolves, no doubt to the delight of dictionary editors. This does, however, make mastering its principles a challenge, albeit one that’s rewarding for lovers of language and literature.  

The University of Texas Permian Basin offers two online English programs that provide students with a deep understanding of American and British literature in preparation for academic, legal, writing, and marketing careers. Affordable and online, our programs cater to professionals from around the country who are interested in turning their passion for English into a worthwhile career. 

Our online English programs are:  

  • Bachelor of Arts in English: Study 18th-century poets, 19th-century novels, and film as literature while developing your composition skills.  
  • Master of Arts in English: Master the structure and complexity of the English language through the exploration of poetry, mythology, and film and media.  

Visit our program pages to learn more about or online BA and MA in English, or if you’re ready to get started, apply now to your program of choice. You’ll find yourself in the company of readers, writers, and grammarians at UT Permian Basin.  

Sources: 
https://www.britannica.com/topic/English-language/Historical-background
https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=hyFIEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR6&dq=history+of+the+english+language&ots=Ucq0fIUiFL&sig=Guf14Hiyx9-53WEoUcK6s2uP3AE#v=onepage&q&f=false
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43521/beowulf-old-english-version
https://www.britannica.com/topic/A-Dictionary-of-the-English-Language-by-Johnson