Many of us have experienced misunderstandings due to miscommunication. For example, you might ask your partner to help with a chore around the house, shouting, “Can I get a hand?” 

They reply, “Be there in a minute!” 

But five minutes later, you’re frustrated—because to you, “a minute” means exactly 60 seconds, while to them, it might mean “soon-ish.” 

Now, imagine these kinds of misunderstandings happening in a courtroom, where the stakes are much higher. The discrepancy between “to-may-to” and “to-mah-to” could mean the difference between a lengthy prison sentence or millions of dollars in damages. 

In this article, we explore two notable cases where semantics—the study of how words and phrases convey meaning and how that meaning shifts depending on context—played a critical role in shaping legal outcomes. 

#1 The Definition of Loitering: City of Chicago v. Morales (1999) 

In the 1990s, Chicago faced a significant rise in homicides due to gang violence. In 1992, the city recorded 920 homicides—the highest number since 1973—and many were linked to gang-related activities. To reduce these violent crimes, the city passed the Gang Congregation Ordinance. According to the law, law enforcement officers were authorized to make people leave a public area if they were suspected of “loitering” and met the following criteria: 

  • More than one person was gathered in a public place. 
  • They appeared to be gang members. 

What Was Wrong With This Law? 

The main issue with this law was its vagueness. It didn’t clearly define “loitering”: Did it mean standing in one place for a long time or simply gathering in a group? Nor did it specify how to determine gang affiliation, leaving too much discretion to law enforcement. This ambiguity gave police broad authority to question and remove individuals based on suspicion alone, increasing the risk of racial profiling and arbitrary arrests. 

The Legal Case 

In one notable incident, Jesus Morales was arrested under this law. He contested the charge in court, arguing that the law was unconstitutional. His case eventually reached the United States Supreme Court in 1999. The Court ruled 6-3 that the law was too vague and violated the 14th Amendment, which guarantees due process and equal protection under the law. 

The Supreme Court’s reasoning included: 

  • Vagueness 
    The law didn’t clearly define what actions or behaviors were illegal, making it impossible for people to know when they were breaking the law. 
  • Discretionary Power 
    The law gave police officers the authority to decide who appeared to be a gang member based on personal judgment, which led to the risk of racial profiling. 
  • Unfair Arrests 
    The law allowed people to be arrested simply for standing in a public space, even if they weren’t engaged in any suspicious activity. 

Why This Case Matters 

City of Chicago v. Morales reinforced an important legal principle: Laws must be clear and specific so that citizens and law enforcement understand what is permissible and what isn’t. Vague laws can grant too much power to authorities, leading to unfair enforcement and potential violations of constitutional rights. 

#2 What Is a Sandwich?: White City Shopping Center v. PR Restaurants, LLC (2006) 

At first glance, the question “What is a sandwich?” seems straightforward. A sandwich typically consists of two pieces of bread with various fillings in between, right? 

But what if that definition doesn’t align with everyone’s understanding of a sandwich? That’s precisely what happened to a Panera Bread location in Shrewsbury, Massachusetts. 

The Problem: What Is a Sandwich? 

This particular Panera had a lease agreement that included an exclusivity clause. To limit competition, the clause stipulated that no other restaurant in the White City Shopping Center could serve sandwiches. However, the lease didn’t specify what exactly constituted a sandwich. 

When Qdoba opened in the same shopping mall and began selling burritos and tacos, Panera claimed that those items (since they were wrapped in a form of bread) qualified as sandwiches under their lease’s exclusivity clause. White City then filed a lawsuit seeking a court declaration that leasing to Qdoba did not violate the clause. 

The Legal Case 

The core issue in the case was simple: What defines a sandwich? Can a burrito or taco, with fillings wrapped inside a tortilla, be considered a sandwich? 

When the case went to court, the judge ruled that tacos, burritos, and quesadillas are not sandwiches. As a result, Qdoba was not in violation of Panera’s exclusivity clause. 

Why This Case Matters 

This case highlights how an everyday word like “sandwich” can lead to a legal dispute when it isn’t clearly defined. The ruling stresses the importance of explicitly defining terms in legal documents to prevent ambiguity. It also shows how personal interpretations of common terms can cause misunderstandings and conflicts in legal settings. 

FAQ 

  • What does semantics mean? 
    Semantics is the study of meaning in language: how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning, and how those meanings can change based on context. 
  • What are examples of semantics? 
    Examples of semantics include how words like “loitering” can be interpreted differently depending on the context. You may use “loitering” in casual conversation to refer to simply hanging out, but in legal contexts, it could carry specific legal implications, such as being associated with gang activity. 
  • When have semantics caused problems in the courtroom? 
    Semantics has caused issues in several court cases where vague or ambiguous terms were at the heart of legal disputes. For example, in City of Chicago v. Morales (1999), the lack of a clear definition for “loitering” led to questions about racial profiling and constitutional rights. Similarly, Panera Bread’s lawsuit against Qdoba centered on the ambiguity of the term “sandwich,” showing how unclear definitions can lead to legal conflicts. 

Find Clarity With a Degree From UTPB 

Fortunately, extreme semantic miscommunications are rare compared to the small misunderstandings we experience daily. For example, when your partner says they’ll “clean” the kitchen, their version of “clean” might not align with yours—leading to frustration (or a kitchen that’s only halfway tidy). Understanding the nuances of language is key to avoiding misinterpretations, whether in personal conversations or professional settings. 

The same principle applies to written communication. Words have power, and the ability to craft clear, compelling messages is a skill in high demand across industries. If you’re looking for a degree that opens doors in marketing, communication, education, writing, law, and beyond, The University of Texas Permian Basin (UTPB) offers online Bachelor of Arts (BA) and Master of Arts (MA) degrees in English to help you master the art of effective communication. 

Each program explores the richness of the English language through literature, linguistics, and writing, examining works from Shakespeare to contemporary authors. In our undergraduate program, you can even take a course on semantics, where you’ll dive deep into how words shape meaning, logic, and interpretation. 

With multiple start dates, affordable tuition, and fully online options, UTPB makes it easy to earn your degree on your schedule. Browse our programs today to find the best path for you. 

Sources: 
https://apps.chicagotribune.com/history-of-chicago-homicides-1957-2016/blurb.html#
https://crfcap.org/images/pdf/5A.pdf
https://opencasebook.org/casebooks/13053-torts/resources/2.9-white-city-shopping-center-v-pr-restaurants-llc

Thousands of years ago, as flowers bloomed and the weather warmed, villagers in what is now Europe gathered to celebrate the vernal equinox. Communities gathered in open clearings, the air filled with the rich scent of burning herbs and fresh, damp earth. They placed eggs—symbols of renewal—on altars, and the sight of a hare darting through the undergrowth was heralded as a sacred sign of the season’s rebirth. This celebration is thought to be the foundation of our modern Easter tradition. 

But how did Easter transform from an ancient tradition to a modern celebration? Let’s take a journey through history and find out. 

Ostara: Ancient Beginnings 

The early rites of celebrating rebirth and renewal may seem unfamiliar to us today, but they form the foundation of many modern holidays, thanks to the generations of shared religion, culture, and history. Many ancient cultures celebrated rebirth, including the Sumerian’s festival to honor the goddess Inanna thousands of years ago. Pre-Christian Europe as early as the Iron Age (around 500 BCE) centered their celebrations of resurrection and rebirth around the spring: a time when the darkness and cold of winter gave way to the warmer temperatures and new beginnings of spring. 

Ancient Germanic communities referred to their spring festival (dedicated to their goddess Eostre) as Ostara, which translates to “dawn” or “east.” The name connotes light and new beginnings, and the modern terms Easter (English) and Ostern (German) are thought to be derived from it. In other parts of Europe, the holiday’s name evolved from the Greek “Pascha,” referring to Jewish Passover. 

Easter During the Rise of Christianity 

Let’s fast-forward to the spread of Christianity. In 313 CE, Emperor Constantine of the Roman Empire legalized Christianity with the Edict of Milan after experiencing a vision of a cross during battle. Christianity quickly spread across European tribes—sometimes by force—and was declared the official religion by Emperor Theodosius nearly seven decades later. Missionaries and religious leaders sought to align Christian celebrations with existing pagan traditions to ease the transition for converts.  

Symbolism: Echoes of Pagan Rituals 

Christian traditions arguably absorbed and reinterpreted many existing pagan customs. For example, the egg was once an emblem of fertility and became associated with Christ’s resurrection, symbolizing the tomb from which he rose. The hare, a sacred animal in rites honoring Eostre, evolved into the Easter Bunny, a figure that still carries connotations of abundance and renewal. 

The next time you see colorful Easter eggs and chocolate bunnies, you’ll know the rich history behind these symbols. 

The Middle Ages: Emergence of Modern Easter 

The Middle Ages saw Easter transform into a significant time of religious observance, marked by church services, fasting, and feasting. While some modern Easter customs like egg decorating emerged during this time, elaborate egg-painting traditions were also developing in Eastern Orthodox Christianity, in which red eggs symbolized Christ’s blood and resurrection. 

The Renaissance further refined these traditions, incorporating grand processions, theatrical performances, and the use of art to depict biblical narratives. The observance of Lent, the forty-day fasting period leading up to Easter, became firmly entrenched in the Christian calendar. 

Easter Today: Diverse Celebrations 

As Christianity spread across continents, Easter traditions diversified. In the Americas, European settlers brought their customs, where they merged with indigenous traditions. For example, the Aztecs celebrated festivals of renewal and agriculture before Europeans brought Christianity with them. Today, Easter is the most important holiday in Mexico, and Mexican regions like Michoacán incorporate indigenous dance and music alongside Catholic icons. 

The 19th and 20th centuries saw the commercialization of Easter, with the introduction of chocolate eggs, candies, and decorative baskets. The Easter Bunny, once a folkloric figure, became a staple of childhood festivities. 

Today, Easter is celebrated in diverse ways across the world. Some cultures celebrate with solemn religious services, such as late-night vigils or Paschal greetings, while others take on a more secular form, like egg hunts, parades, and family gatherings. Some still celebrate in the old pagan tradition.  

As Easter celebrations continue across the globe, the history of the holiday remains an example of the enduring power of tradition and adaptation: a testament to our humanity. 

Turn Your Passion For History Into a Career at UTPB 

The story of Easter’s transformation over time reveals how history shapes the traditions we hold dear today. It’s a reminder that behind every celebration, belief, and custom lies a rich tapestry of cultural evolution and human experience. 

If you’re fascinated by how the past influences the present, consider deepening your knowledge with the online Master of Arts in History from UT Permian Basin. This fully online program lets you explore historical narratives, cultural shifts, and religious traditions from anywhere, on your schedule. You’ll develop critical thinking skills, engage in scholarly research, and uncover how history has shaped the world around us. 

Ready to turn your passion for the past into a meaningful future? Apply today and take the first step toward a career where you can preserve history, inspire others, and make an impact that lasts. 

In our modern world, there are countless mediums through which we can document our emotions regarding the human experience: photos on Instagram and shorts on YouTube, to name a few. But nothing quite reflects our highs and lows like the written word, particularly in the form of poetry. 

For centuries, poets have shaped the way we view the world around us, exploring themes that transcend time. Think about it: Shakespeare’s “Hamlet” with its iconic “To be, or not to be” soliloquy, or T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land,” with its fragmented yet powerful depiction of a post-war world struggling to find meaning. 

These poets, along with countless others, have not only defined their eras but also left a lasting impact on how we express and interpret emotions today. In this article, we celebrate some of history’s most notable poets, whose works continue to resonate with and inspire new generations. 

William Shakespeare (1564-1616) 

William Shakespeare’s works have moved audiences for generations, connecting with readers and audiences across the globe. While he coined the famous phrase “To be, or not to be” centuries ago, it still holds profound relevance today, as do numerous other phrases in his works, like “break the ice,” “heart of gold,” and “wild-goose chase.” 

Over his lifetime, Shakespeare penned 154 sonnets and numerous iconic plays, such as “Romeo and Juliet,” “Macbeth,” and “Much Ado About Nothing.” These plays are not only reenacted in theatres worldwide but have also been adapted into films with similar plots. The animated Disney film “The Lion King,” for instance, draws inspiration from “Hamlet.” Another ’90s classic, “Ten Things I Hate About You,” is based on his play “The Taming of the Shrew.” 

Whether you’re reading a sonnet or a full-length play, Shakespeare’s themes are as timeless as they are universal. He did what many writers cannot: depict the complexities of human emotion, from the beauty of love to the depths of jealousy. His masterful manipulation of the English language and his knack for weaving intricate—and jaw-dropping—plots explain why his works have endured for centuries and remain central to educational curriculums today. 

Edgar Allen Poe (1809-1849) 

The Master of the Macabre, American poet Edgar Allan Poe is known for his uncanny ability to dig six feet deep into dark, gothic themes. Poems like “The Raven” were revolutionary in the 1800s, as Poe explored the human psyche and the darker side of existence.  

The poem follows a man who is mourning the death of his beloved, Lenore. It expertly descends into the narrator’s spiral of madness, which is symbolized by a raven that repeatedly speaks the word “nevermore.” His use of symbolism, repetition, imagery, and melancholic rhythm throughout the poem are wonderful examples of literary devices that convey the narrator’s descent into despair. 

His other works, both poetry and short stories, focused heavily on horror, mystery, and the “detective story,” paving the way for other famed writers like H.P. Lovecraft and Arthur Conan Doyle. Through his exploration of the dark side of the human mind, he helped create the genres of psychological horror and detective fiction, shaping the future of suspenseful literature. 

Sylvia Plath (1932-1963) 

Best known for her confessional style of poetry, Sylvia Plath explored themes of mental illness, death, and the female experience. Her work was especially groundbreaking during a time when mental health issues were rarely discussed openly. One of her most famous poems, “Lady Lazarus,” portrays her own personal battle with suicidal thoughts, symbolizing both the pain and the power of survival. One excerpt from the poem reads: 

Out of the ash 

I rise with my red hair 

And I eat men like air. 

The imagery of “rising from the ash” alludes to the mythical phoenix, representing her resilience after feeling defeated in the face of self-destruction. In addition, the line “I eat men like air” conveys a strong sense of empowerment, as the speaker transforms her suffering into  strength. 

Plath’s work also explores the conflict between her self-identity and the societal expectations placed on women in the 1950s and ’60s. Her semi-autobiographical novel, “The Bell Jar,” delves into her struggles with mental illness, offering a candid look at the internal battles the narrator faced. In the final line of the book, she writes: 

I took a deep breath and listened to the old brag of my heart. I am, I am, I am. 

This line reflects the narrator’s ongoing attempt to find stability and meaning in an oppressive world. Through her candid writing style, Plath created a body of work that has resonated with readers for decades, particularly those grappling with their own experiences of mental health, gender roles, and the search for identity. 

Discover the Power of Words With an Online BA in English 

For centuries, poetry has had the power to shape our understanding of the human experience. If you’re passionate about exploring the depths of poetry, literary analysis, and storytelling, pursuing an online Bachelor of Arts in English from The University of Texas Permian Basin allows you to dive deeper than ever before into the world of literature. 

With a core curriculum that emphasizes both classic and contemporary texts, you’ll refine your skills in writing, critical thinking, and communication, preparing you for careers in education, marketing, publishing, and more. Plus, with diverse American Literature, British Literature, and elective courses, you can customize your studies to align with your passions and professional goals. 

At UT Permian Basin, we’re proud to offer competitive tuition rates, flexible 100% online learning, and year-round start dates, making it easier than ever to achieve your degree on your schedule. 

Have questions? Reach out today! We’re here to help. When you’re ready to take the next step, the application is just a click away. 

Sources: 
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/48860/the-raven
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/49000/lady-lazarus

“I don’t paint dreams or nightmares. I paint my own reality.” —Frida Kahlo 

Frida Kahlo’s iconic self-portraits became a mirror of her struggles and independence, portraying both physical pain (from a life-altering bus accident) and emotional torment and giving voice to women of her time who were often silenced. 

Kahlo’s struggles mirrored those of many female artists across history. Though female subjects are frequently portrayed in art, women striving for careers as working artists face significant social, cultural and institutional barriers. A 2022 Burns Halperin report showed that only 11% of acquisitions and 14.9% of exhibitions at 31 U.S. museums were works by women artists. Despite these challenges, women have made significant contributions to the arts and continue to assert their place. Let’s shine a light on some of these prominent female artists, from antiquity to the modern era. 

Celebrating Women in Art: A Brief History 

In ancient times, women were involved in pottery, textiles, and sculpture—yet their contributions were often overshadowed by their male counterparts. They had limited access to formal training, which hindered their ability to pursue careers as professional artists. Nevertheless, over time, women began to defy these limitations and make their mark on the art world, even when society attempted to restrict their expression. 

Groundbreaking Female Icons

Here are some female artists who fearlessly challenged artistic and societal norms throughout history: 

  • Artemisia Gentileschi (16th century): A pioneering Baroque painter, Gentileschi’s dramatic, powerful work often featured women in positions of strength and struggle: groundbreaking for her time. 
  • Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun (17th century): Known for her portraits of European royalty, Vigée-Lebrun’s elegant depictions of Queen Marie Antoinette portrayed women as dignified, powerful figures, challenging societal norms of the period. 
  • Georgia O’Keeffe (early 20th century): Revered as the “Mother of American Modernism,” O’Keeffe used bold, abstract imagery in her paintings, particularly of flowers and landscapes, challenging traditional views of art and female representation. 
  • Frida Kahlo (early 20th century): Known for her emotive self-portraits, Kahlo’s work explores themes of identity, gender, postcolonialism, and pain. Despite facing significant personal hardships, her art inspired generations of women to embrace their resilience and creativity. 
  • Mary Cassatt (Early 20th century): As an impressionist, Cassatt’s tender portrayals of mothers and children highlighted the quiet strength of women at a time when women were fighting for the right to vote and be heard. 
  • Lee Krasner (20th century): Known for innovative works like “Little Images,” Krasner was integral to abstract expressionism, pushing boundaries in artistic innovation and the reinvention of personal identity through art. 
  • Judy Chicago (contemporary): With feminism as its lens, Chicago’s work, like “The Dinner Party,” celebrated the achievements of women throughout history and challenged traditional perceptions of women’s roles in art. 
  • Miriam Schapiro (contemporary): As a key figure in the feminist art movement, Schapiro bridged the gap between fine art and traditional domestic crafts with her “femmage” style, using quilting and fabric to highlight women’s domestic roles in a creative context. 

Women Redefining Art Today 

In modern times, women have used their creative expression to challenge societal norms and tackle issues like mental health, identity, and race and provide new perspectives on what art can be. The contributions of these women have not only shaped the history of art but also continue to influence contemporary artists today: 

  • Yayoi Kusama, known for her immersive polka-dot installations, has used her art to explore themes of infinity and mental health. 
  • Digital art and social media have given new platforms to female artists like Shantell Martin and Jen Stark, whose work reaches a global audience and inspires new generations. 

The Road Ahead 

Despite the progress made, gender disparities in the art world persist. Women make up 70% of Bachelor of Fine Arts graduates and about 75% of Master of Fine Arts graduates in the U.S., yet only represent 46% of working artists across all artistic disciplines. Women also remain underrepresented in leadership positions within galleries, museums, and auctions, even though they make up most of the staff in these institutions. 

As the art world evolves, women’s voices will continue to shape its future. Whether through traditional painting, digital innovation, or performance art, female artists are breaking barriers and opening new doors for future generations to walk through—without limitations. 

Redefine the Status Quo with a Humanities Degree 

The online Bachelor of Arts in Humanities from The University of Texas Permian Basin explores the intersection of art, culture, history, and identity, which helps students develop critical thinking and communication skills while understanding the impact of creative expression on society. Carefully curated courses like Women Artists (ARTS 3301) and topics such as modern media, art history, virtual reality, and film provide a diverse and inclusive learning experience. Whether you want to champion women artists or chart your own path in the arts, UTPB’s fully online curriculum offers the flexibility and foundation to turn your passion into purpose. It’s a versatile degree that opens doors to many roles and skills you can apply in everyday life. 

Inspire future generations to celebrate and pursue artistic expression without limitations. Apply on your own terms and join the Falcon Family online next semester! 

Starting at midnight on November 1st, families across Mexico and beyond celebrate the cherished annual tradition of Día de los Muertos (the Day of the Dead), coming together to welcome back the souls of their departed loved ones. On the evening of October 31st, families prepare elaborate altars, traditional food and drink, and colorful costumes for the celebration ahead. 

How did this this well-known festival honoring the dead come to be? Let’s explore the rich history behind this holiday. 

Mesoamerican Beginnings 

Thousands of years before the Spanish Conquest, various Nahua peoples—including the Olmec, Maya, Toltec, Aztec, Huastec, and Mixtec—lived in what is now Mexico and honored the lives of the dead with month-long rituals. 

Upon death, a person was thought to travel to Chicunamictlán, the Land of the Dead. From there, it was believed they had to pass nine challenging levels (a journey that took several years) before arriving at Mictlán, their final resting place. Nahua rituals focused on honoring family members during this difficult time, providing food, water, pottery, personal items, and tools to aid the dead. This inspired the modern Day of the Dead practice in which celebrants place food and other offerings on loved ones’ graves. 

The indigenous peoples believed that death was a natural part of the life cycle and not something to be feared. Instead, death was a transition, with the dead continuing to exist in the afterlife.  

European Influence 

In the 16th century, Spanish colonizers introduced and imposed Catholic beliefs and traditions on the indigenous peoples. Traditions similar to the celebrations of the dead were the Christian holidays of All Saints’ Day and All Souls’ Day, which fell on November 1st and 2nd. Over time, Día de los Muertos merged with Catholic traditions, shifting from a months-long celebration in August to November 1st and 2nd. 

Despite centuries of suppression and oppression, the resilient indigenous traditions in Mexico adapted and endured. 

From Ancient Roots to Modern Celebrations 

In the modern-day celebration of Día de los Muertos, people across Mexico and beyond honor their deceased loved ones with joy rather than sorrow, much like in the ancient rituals of the Nahua. November 1st is dedicated to children, while November 2nd is dedicated to adults. Let’s look at how families prepare: 

  • Ofrendas: Altars, or ofrendas, are created in homes and cemeteries and decorated with vibrant marigolds, candles, and photos of the deceased. Offerings of food include the deceased’s favorite dishes and drinks.  
  • Sugar skulls: These well-known symbols of the festivity, called calaveras, serve as a symbol of the deceased. They are placed in homes and cemeteries and on the deceaseds’ altars. This practice dates back to ancient Nahua practices, where skulls were offered to the god Mictlantecuhtli to ensure a safe passage to the afterlife. 
  • Traditional foods: Families bake pan de muerto and special meals to share with family and place on the ofrendas. 
  • Visiting gravesites: Families visit, clean, and decorate the graves of their ancestors with flowers, candles, incense, and food offerings. 
  • Participating in parades: Celebrants join local parades and events wearing traditional face paints and colorful costumes. This echoes Mesoamerican times when Nahua people dressed in ceremonial clothes, face paint, and masks to celebrate the dead. 

From Mesoamerican to Modern Icons 

The people of the Aztec Empire worshiped the goddess Mictecacihuatl, the Lady of the Dead, who was a central figure in the celebrations and believed to watch over the bones of the deceased. Although unrelated, her symbolism in the festival is echoed in La Calavera Catrina, a popular modern figure that emerged in the early 20th century and has since become an iconic symbol of the celebration. 

Influence Across Other Cultures 

Día de los Muertos is filled with pride, love, and deep reverence for the past. It’s a joyful celebration of life and memory. As the holiday has spread, it has both shaped and been shaped by other cultures. For example, while some have adopted the American practice of children trick-or-treating on Halloween (“mi calaverita”), the holiday remains dedicated to honoring the dead. Its vibrant traditions have inspired new ways of remembering the departed in places as far as Europe and Asia. 

Although unique in its traditions, Día de los Muertos shares similarities with other cultures that independently evolved similar ways of honoring the dead. For example, Japan’s Obon festival and Cambodia’s Pchum Ben reflect a universal desire to honor and celebrate the deceased. Despite evolving separately, these celebrations demonstrate our shared desire to remember, respect, and maintain the continuity of life: a testament to our common humanity. 

Lead the Next Generation with a Master’s Degree From The University of Texas Permian Basin 

For history buffs with a passion for cultural traditions like Día de los Muertos, pursuing an online Master of Arts in History at The University of Texas Permian Basin can provide a deep dive into the historical contexts that shape our world today. This program will equip you with the knowledge and tools to teach the next generation about the significance of historic holidays and ensure that the rich traditions of the past are preserved, honored, and appreciated for years to come. 

Our MA in history is available online, and you’ll learn broadly applicable skills like critical thinking, leadership, analysis, and communication that allow you to work in diverse roles, such as: 

  • historian 
  • educator 
  • legislator 
  • operations manager 

If you’re committed to preserving history and guiding the next generation, take the next step and apply today. 

What is it about horror stories that’s so captivating? More than any other literary genre, horror has the power to leap off the page, sending shivers down our spines and turning shadows into lurking dangers. It brings us to the darkest corners of our minds, where our deepest fears live. 

Journey with us beyond the sparkling vampires, scarred wizards, and eternal faeries of modern horror fiction and dive into the chilling narratives that birthed an entire genre. This is your guide to the history of horror literature. 

What Is Horror Fiction?  

The horror genre is best defined by the emotions it seeks to evoke: shock, disgust, and above all else, fear. While it often shares supernatural and fantastical elements with other genres—such as ghosts, witches, vampires, or werewolves—horror wields these elements with the singular purpose of eliciting feelings of dread and suspense.  

If you’re reading a passage that makes you feel as if the terrifying events depicted on the page could happen to you, chances are you’re reading a piece of finely crafted horror fiction.  

The Origins of Horror Literature 

Horror stories have always captivated the imagination. Take, for instance, the “Epic of Gilgamesh,” a Mesopotamian odyssey that dates to 2100 B.C. and weaves supernatural elements into its narrative. But the horror genre as we know it began to take shape with the publication of Horace Walpole’s 1764 novel, “The Castle of Otranto.” 

A work of gothic fiction, “The Castle of Otranto” follows the royal family of Sicily as they attempt (and fail) to divert an ancient prophecy, mixing supernatural elements and realistic characters to create a fantasy grounded in reality.  

Just as a werewolf is transformed by the light of a full moon, the horror genre has undergone its own metamorphosis over the centuries. Early works featured many of the dark tropes we’re familiar with today: villainous men and supernatural beings set against grim, oppressive backdrops. However, the 1818 publication of “Frankenstein” marked a pivotal shift in the genre. 

Horror Refined  

With “Frankenstein,” Mary Shelley introduced a new element to horror: the terror of pseudoscience. Her novel features a grotesque creature—intelligent yet monstrous, brought to life by science—who seeks revenge against its creator. (Can you believe Shelley was only 19 when she penned the novel?)  

This chilling narrative captivated readers and inspired a generation of writers, including Edgar Allan Poe. Poe further refined and popularized the genre. His short stories, such as 1839’s “The Fall of the House of Usher,” infused the horror genre with his unique blend of macabre and psychological terror. The visionary works of Shelley and Poe defined horror literature, setting the stage for centuries of thrilling storytelling.  

The subsequent decades produced numerous seminal works that have stood the test of time:  

  • 1860’s “Woman in White” and 1868’s “The Moonstone” by Wilkie Collins 
  • 1863’s “The House by the Churchyard” and 1872’s “Green Tea” by Sheridan Le Fanu 
  • 1886’s “The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde” by Robert Louis Stevenson 
  • 1890’s “The Picture of Dorian Gray” by Oscar Wilde 
  • 1897’s “Dracula” by Bram Stoker   
  • 1898’s “The Turn of the Screw” by Henry James  

Modern Horror Literature  

The horror genre boomed in the 20th century, giving rise to new subgenres like paranormal, occult, dark fantasy, survival, and science fiction horror. The genre began to feature contemporary trappings, such as serial killers and slasher stories, presenting a dark reflection of modern society. 

Standing on the shoulders of literary giants, modern horror authors continue to terrify readers. H.P Lovecraft, for instance, merged elements of science fiction and horror to give us “The Call of Cthulhu” and “At the Mountains of Madness.” His stories invite readers to peer beyond the veil of reality, where horrors are ancient and alien. Stephen King, a master of modern horror, can twist the ordinary and mundane into the terrifying, as anyone who’s read “The Shining” or “Pet Sematary” knows.  

We also celebrate contemporary voices like Stephen Graham Jones, Jonathan Maberry, and Silvia Moreno-Garcia who continue to bring us fresh horror literature. These writers ensure that the horror genre not only remains relevant but also evolves and captivates new generations of readers.  

A Taste of What’s to Come 

We hope you’ve enjoyed this look back at the origins of horror literature. Unfortunately, we couldn’t cover every influential author and spine-chilling story deserving of your attention, but that doesn’t mean the story has to end here.  

If you want to delve deeper into the world of literature and explore the tremendous impact words have on the world, consider expanding your understanding through academic study. The University of Texas Permian Basin offers two outstanding online programs designed for literature enthusiasts:  

An English degree could be your gateway to a fulfilling career in which you teach, edit, or even author your own work. Alternatively, you could venture into fields like advertising, public relations, or law, where mastery of the English language is vital.  

Our English programs are entirely online, meaning you can seamlessly switch from enjoying your favorite horror story—we’re fans of “House of Leaves” by Mark Z. Danielewski—to studying British and American Literature.  

Ready to apply? Click here to start on a journey that ends with you earning your degree from UT Permian Basin.  

Sources: 
https://www.nypl.org/blog/2018/10/18/brief-history-gothic-horror
https://www.britannica.com/art/horror-story
https://www.masterclass.com/articles/what-is-horror-fiction

“Any form of art is a form of power; it has impact, it can affect change – it can not only move us, it makes us move.” — Ossie Davis, actor and activist 

October is Art and Humanities Month in the United States, a celebration that provides the perfect opportunity to consider how art helps shape society. Our societal norms and values have an inextricable link to the arts, and here we’ll discuss some fascinating aspects of that connection. 

Providing Foundations  

Modern political systems, including the US federal government, drew their structure from ancient civilizations. The Greeks conceived a democratic system with a written constitution, while the Romans formed a republic with a senate. These systems helped shape American society largely because they were preserved in the literature, frescoes, architecture, and sculptures these cultures produced. 

Recording Events and Inciting Action  

The grim reality of the Spanish Civil War was brought to light for much of the world through Pablo Picasso’s painting “Guernica,” which depicts an incident that might never have been known outside of Spain and could have been largely forgotten by history. Now, it’s immortalized on canvas. 

The masterwork depicts an attack ordered by Francisco Franco on a small town called Guernica, which was a historical symbol of democracy for Spain. With help from Germany, Franco bombed the town, killing hundreds of people, including many women and children. The painting was sent on tour and was used to raise money in support of refugees who left Spain during its civil war. 

Reinforcing Beliefs  

Why are central figures from Christianity often depicted in clothing and settings from the Middle Ages? Gerard David’s 16th-century painting  “Virgin and Child with Four Angels” is an example of a work in which the artist painted ancient subjects with a more modern look. Period images of these religious figures were scarce, and painting them in more familiar medieval contexts made them more relatable to people of the 16th century, thereby reinforcing their faith. 

Creating a New Normal 

What is normal, decent, and acceptable? This varies with time and geography, but changes to societal norms are often spurred by works of art. For eons, art was used primarily to depict the familiar: people, objects, settings, and scenarios that were recognizable and situated in the known world. Then abstract art appeared on the scene.  

Abstractionism received its share of resistance from art critics and the public. It represented a radical, shocking shift away from traditional art style and subjects, which tended to focus on religion or history. But it also opened our minds, changing our perceptions of what could be deemed art. 

Promoting Social Change 

Art is a form of commentary with the power to draw attention to serious social issues, spark sympathy and outrage, and change attitudes in a way that’s necessary to bring about social change. At the very least, it can start some important discussions. While we may think of social activism as a recent phenomenon, political cartoons created during the French Revolution are but a few historical examples of art that calls for change. 

Moreover, art calling attention to social concerns sometimes came from unexpected sources. Even Norman Rockwell, most closely associated with Americana images of baseball games and barbershops, took on serious social issues with his painting “Golden Rule.” 

Shape Stronger Professional Potential With a Humanities Degree 

Explore all forms of art from ancient to modern in The University of Texas Permian Basin’s  online Bachelor of Arts in Humanities—available online exclusively at this UT System institution. Our program provides an enriching, comprehensive, multidisciplinary exploration of cultural expression not only in the arts, but also in communication, history, languages, and across the spectrum of the humanities. 

This curriculum, combined with a variety of general education courses, helps you develop broadly applicable skills highly valued by employers today. See the internationally known companies and organizations where some graduates of this UTPB program are working now.  

We offer our BA in humanities program in a 100% online, asynchronous format that enables you to meet your professional and personal obligations while earning an essential and adaptable degree. Complete coursework from just about any location on the planet. No campus visits are required. 

Get more information about our online BA in humanities program and apply now. 

Sources: 
https://www.americansforthearts.org/events/national-arts-and-humanities-month
https://thedailyguardian.com/the-impact-of-art-on-society-role-of-art-in-shaping-culture-challenging-societal-norms-and-sparking-social-change/
https://www.montenagler.com/art-affect-culture-society/
https://artificialpaintings.com/blog/2024/07/10/the-influence-of-abstract-art-on-public-opinion-2/
https://www.britannica.com/art/abstract-art
https://artsproutsart.com/creating-art-for-social-change-how-art-can-inspire-activism/

As store aisles fill with skeletons, ghouls, and endless bags of candy, children begin the great debate over whether to be witches or firefighters for Halloween. Meanwhile, adults across the country start adding gargantuan bags of candy to their normal grocery lists in preparation for trick-or-treaters. 

This raises the question: Has trick-or-treating always been a part of Halloween? And what were the origins of this spooktacular holiday? 

Grab your favorite fun-sized candy bar as we dive into the history of Halloween. 

Let’s Take It Back to Samhain 

Halloween’s roots trace back thousands of years to the Celtic pagan festival of Samhain (pronounced “sow-win”). Celebrated on November 1st, Samhain marked the end of the harvest season and the start of winter: a harsh, biting season often associated with death. The Celts believed that on October 31st, the last night of their calendar year, the veil between the living and the dead was thinnest. 

To celebrate, they lit fires and left offerings for the spirits. Some Celts dressed up as animals to avoid being kidnapped by spirits or faeries and taken to the other plane. Druids, respected community leaders, would use this night to tell the fortunes of the community for the upcoming winter months. 

The Start of All Saints’ Day 

In the early 600s, the Catholic church designated November 1st as All Saints’ Day to commemorate the saints of the church. November 2nd became All Souls’ Day, a day to pray for deceased loved ones. All Saints’ Day was also known as All Hallows, and the day before it (October 31st) was aptly named All Hallows Eve. 

As Christianity spread into Celtic regions, the holiday began to blend with the traditional customs of Samhain. Eventually, parts of all three holidays would blend into what we now know as Halloween, but it would still be over a thousand years before trick-or-treating and other modern-day Halloween traditions emerged. 

Soul Cakes 

Around the 8th century, the earliest analog to trick-or-treating may have begun in Ireland and England during All Saints’ Day and All Souls’ Day celebrations. On those days, underprivileged individuals would visit wealthy families, offering prayers for the souls of the family’s dead relatives in exchange for pastries called “soul cakes.” Eventually, children took up this activity, going door to door and asking for gifts like food and money. 

Halloween in America 

Early settlers brought their spin on Halloween traditions to Colonial America, but not everyone reveled in the celebrations. Because of the strict religious beliefs held throughout many of the colonies, only Maryland and some of the southern colonies took part in Halloween-related festivities. 

As Native Americans and diverse European immigrants shared their customs and beliefs with settlers, America slowly formed its own version of the holiday, complete with activities such as: 

  • Sharing stories of the dead. 
  • Holding public events to celebrate the harvest. 
  • Telling fortunes. 
  • Dancing and singing. 

Modernizing Halloween 

By the 1800s, Halloween had become known as a night for pranking and tricking unlucky bystanders, effectively putting the spook in spooky season. Teenagers would jump out from dark corners to scare their younger siblings. Children tripped innocent bystanders with hidden ropes as they walked by in the dark. In 1887, a few tricksters even put molasses on the seats of a chapel before church began.  

Eventually, the media began to rebrand the holiday as something more positive for the youth of America. Unfortunately, President Truman’s idea of replacing Halloween with “Youth Honor Day” didn’t take off as he’d hoped. Thankfully, another idea had been circulating since the 1930s and was slowly gaining adoption. Since children were already banging on doors and demanding sweets from strangers, why not teach them to do so politely (and recommend adults have candy at the ready)? Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, magazine articles and television and radio programs began promoting this new Halloween activity, known as “trick-or-treating.”  

Today, typical Halloween celebrations consist of mostly civilized transactions between adult neighbors and costumed children knocking on doors and sweetly holding out their cauldrons, buckets, and pillowcases for the goods. 

Expand Your Historical Horizons at UTPB 

If the history of Halloween intrigued you, why stop there? With an online Master of Arts in History, you can turn your passion for the past into a lucrative career as an educator, historian, legislator, and more. 

The University of Texas Permian Basin’s 30-credit online MA in history is designed for busy people like you. Its 100% online format lets you complete coursework from anywhere, whether you’re on your lunch break or aboard a flight to your next historic travel destination. 

Of course, if you want to participate in live courses, we have you covered. As an online MA in history student, you can enroll in graduate-level synchronous live-remote courses. If you’re interested, contact Department Chair Dr. Ana Martinez-Catsam for more information. 

Are you ready to make history by earning an advanced degree in a subject you’re passionate about? Apply today. 

Sources: 
https://www.history.com/topics/holidays/samhain
https://www.history.com/topics/halloween/history-of-halloween
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-halloween-was-all-tricks-no-treats-180966996/

You know summer is over when “autumn is coming” and “it’s brass monkey weather.” Or at least, you know this if you’re British. An American may say “fall’s on its way” or “I’m freezing my tail off.” Both speakers may scratch their heads over the other’s way of speaking. 

The divergence between British English and American English is a topic of perennial fascination. While both versions of the language are mutually intelligible, they have distinctive differences in vocabulary, spelling, grammar, and usage. Let’s take a closer look. 

A Brief History 

British English originated from Old English, called Englisċ, with the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons in the 5th century. It developed further with influence from Latin, Norse, and Norman French. Modern English emerged around the 16th century and brought with it a standardization of grammar and spelling. 

When British settlers brought English to America in the 17th century, it began to evolve separately due to cultural and environmental changes. Later, Americans pushing westward on the frontier in the 19th century often coined new words when needed, and the 20% of settlers who spoke a language other than English also influenced it’s early development.  

Different Vocabulary 

One of the most noticeable differences between British and American English is their vocabulary. While “autumn” and “fall” are used in both variants, British English speakers prefer “autumn” — from the Latin “autumnus” — while Americans favor “fall,” derived from the 16th century British expression “fall of the leaf.” 

Did you know that many words we categorize as typically American were originally British? “Soccer” and “sidewalk,” for example, were once common in British English but became outdated, while remaining in use in America. In some cases, words that are commonly used in one variant may be unfamiliar or have different meanings in the other. For example: 

  • British English: lift, lorry, petrol, biscuit 
  • American English: elevator, truck, gasoline, cookie 

These differences extend to everyday objects, clothing, and food. In British English, you might put on a “jumper” (sweater) and “trainers” (sneakers) before going to the “cinema” (movie theater) to watch a “film” (movie).  

Spelling Divergences 

British English spelling was inconsistent before the invention of the printing press, as evidenced by Middle English classics like Geoffrey Chaucer’s “The Canterbury Tales,” published in the late 14th century.  

British spelling became standardized after Samuel Johnson published “A Dictionary of the English Language” in 1775. In response, Americans created their own standard with Noah Webster’s “An American Dictionary of the English Language” in 1828. Webster aimed to simplify English spelling and reflect pronunciation more closely, likely influenced by the United States’ newfound independence from Great Britain. 

Common examples of this type of spelling divergence include: 

  • British English: colour, centre, favourite, realise, defence 
  • American English: color, center, favorite, realize, defense 

Grammar and Usage 

While the basic rules of English grammar remain consistent across both variants, there are subtle differences. British English speakers often use the present perfect tense to describe recent actions with present relevance, while American English speakers commonly use the simple past tense. An example would be: 

  • British English: “I have just eaten.” 
  • American English: “I just ate.” 

Prepositions and collective nouns also often differ slightly between the two dialects. A British speaker may say “at the weekend” while an American says “on the weekend.” In British English, “the team are winning,” while in American English, “the team is winning.” 

Pronunciation 

British and American speakers are easily distinguishable by their pronunciation and enunciation. The most noticeable difference is the use of the letter “r”. Many British accents, especially Received Pronunciation (RP), do not pronounce the “r” at the end of words before consonants (e.g., “car” sounds like “cah”). Most American English accents are rhotic, pronouncing all instances of “r”.  

Regional accents can vary, however, and some regions of England (such as Cornwall) use rhotic pronunciation, while some U.S. dialects like the Boston accent drop the “r” sound. 

Confused yet? These differences extend to vowels, as well. American English speakers tend to emphasize vowels, while British speakers use different vowel sounds and enunciate the entire word more distinctly. For instance, in British English, “bath” is pronounced with a broad “a” (like in “ah”), while in American English, it has a short, elongated “a” sound. 

Idiomatic Expressions 

Idioms reflect cultural differences and historical contexts, so it’s unsurprising that British and American English differ here as well. Some idioms like “break the ice,” which originated from ships breaking through frozen waters, are used in both variants. But most idioms have evolved to incorporate local culture and experiences. 

For example: 

  • British English: Tea is a cultural staple in the British Isles, and the idiom “It’s not my cup of tea” (it’s not to my taste) is very common. 
  • American English: Baseball is a popular sport in the United States, and the idiom “ballpark figure” is commonly used to refer to an estimate of cost or quantity, similar to the term “ballpark” referring to a general area or range in baseball. 

Explore the Rich Diversity of the English Language at The University of Texas Permian Basin 

Are you fascinated by the contextual and historical differences between British and American English? Consider The University of Texas Permian Basin’s two English programs: 

Both programs are taught entirely online and cover linguistic differences, literature, and cultural contexts, equipping students with a profound understanding of the English language. While our online MA in English requires a bachelor’s degree, it can lead to higher earnings and opportunities for doctoral studies or a career in law. 

Graduates pursue careers in fields like: 

  • Education 
  • Publishing 
  • Communication 
  • Civil services 
  • Advertising 

An English degree is incredibly versatile, leading to numerous and diverse opportunities based on your interests and goals. If you’re passionate about the English language and want to explore its rich diversity, take the next step in your educational journey and apply here. 

Why pursue an education in humanities? 

Contrary to common perceptions that a humanities degree is less practical than a STEM degree, the skills you’ll develop through a humanities education are crucial for navigating the complexities of today’s world. According to the US. Department of Labor, the most desired soft skills include oral and written communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and problem-solving. In fact, employers today report a lack of these essential soft skills in the job market. 

For professionals looking to strengthen these practical and incredibly versatile skills in a competitive job market, there’s no more effective way to take advantage of the soft skills gap than earning a humanities degree. In this article, we’ll explore the impact a humanities education has on two essential life skills: critical thinking and problem-solving. 

Cultivating Independent Thought 

One of the primary benefits of a humanities education is the cultivation of critical thinking. For example, The University of Texas Permian Basin’s online Bachelor of Arts in Humanities takes a multidisciplinary and well-rounded approach to subjects like: 

  • writing and literature 
  • communication and public speaking 
  • history and culture 
  • foreign languages 
  • music and the arts 
  • philosophy and social sciences 
  • physical sciences 

As a humanities student, you’ll learn how to analyze texts, interpret historical events, and engage with philosophical debates. Additionally, you’ll acquire the skills needed to question assumptions, consider multiple perspectives, and evaluate evidence critically. This analytic process promotes independent thought and well-reasoned arguments that can benefit you in countless career paths—and even daily interactions. 

You’ll also dive deeply into cultural and social contexts, which is vital for critical thinking and understanding multiple, often controversial perspectives. For instance, in many of our literature courses, you’ll examine characters’ motivations and societal influences, enabling you to better understand the nuances and complexities of human behavior. This kind of skill makes you highly valuable in numerous professional settings. 

Solving Real-Life Problems 

While we often equate problem-solving skills with technical knowledge, a humanities education teaches you how to navigate and analyze causes and consequences. For example, the study of history involves analyzing past events to understand what happened and come up with solutions to contemporary issues. The ability to creatively draw connections between different fields of knowledge and apply interdisciplinary approaches is a hallmark of a humanities education. This skill is particularly relevant in a world where problems are rarely confined to a single discipline. 

Philosophy courses, with their focus on logical reasoning and ethical dilemmas, further enhance your problem-solving and reasoning abilities. By engaging with complex questions and developing coherent arguments, students learn to approach problems methodically and creatively. This skill is essential for careers that require innovative thinking, leadership, and strategic planning. 

Versatility and Career Diversity 

As a humanities student, you’ll certainly reap the communication and analytical skills that can ease your navigation of day-to-day problems. But these versatile skills can also open doors to a wide range of careers. The ability to think critically and solve problems effectively are highly valued in fields such as: 

  • law 
  • education 
  • journalism 
  • public service 

Humanities majors are not limited to academic or cultural institutions but can also thrive in business, technology, and healthcare industries. 

Excel in Multiple Fields With an Online UTPB Humanities Degree  

By fostering an understanding of cultural and social contexts, encouraging interdisciplinary approaches, and promoting versatile skill sets, a humanities education can be an invaluable asset in an increasingly complex world. In fact, LinkedIn lists some of the top workplace skills in 2024 as adaptability, communication, problem-solving, and research: all skills you’ll develop with a humanities degree. 

Flexible Online Learning  

The University of Texas Permian Basin’s online Bachelor of Arts in Humanities offers a well-rounded and comprehensive education that equips you with skills highly valuable in a competitive job market. Take it from one of our humanities graduates: 

“I am confident that the valuable education I receive here from the incredible professors will serve me in my profession as an educator and law student.” 

—Maria Mabry, BA in humanities graduate 

Our graduates work in diverse and reputable companies, such as: 

  • NASA 
  • Dell 
  • Fidelity Investment 
  • Apple 

Best of all, you can study from anywhere in the world, on your own terms: Classes are synchronous and entirely online. 

Become an invaluable asset in today’s world with a humanities degree. Apply here.